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中华人民共和国
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? ????????? ??	1931? 11? 7?
? ???	1934? 11? 5?
? ??????? ??	1949? 10? 1?
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??	9,596,961 km2 (4 ?)
??? ??	2.8%
???	CST2 (UTC+08:00)
DST	??
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??	?? 91.1%; ?? 8.9%;
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2024? ??	1,408,280,000? (2?)
?? ??	147?/km2 (83?)
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GDP(PPP)	2025? ???
? ??	$40? 7,160? (1?)
? ???	$28,978 (72?)
GDP(??)	2025? ???
? ??	$19? 2,320? (2?)
? ???	$13,687 (69?)
HDI	0.797 (78?, 2023? ??)
??	??? (??)3 (CNY)
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??	?? (?????)
??	?? 33.4% ; ??? 25.2% ; ?? 19.6% ; ???? 17.1% ; ??? 2.5% ; ???? 1.6% (2023?)
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ISO 3166-1	156, CN, CHN
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百度人民日报海外版财经要闻：标题：中国反击：拟对美国约30亿美元产品加征关税2018年3月23日，商务部发布了针对美国进口钢铁和铝产品232措施的中止减让产品清单并征求公众意见，拟对自美进口部分产品加征关税，以平衡因美国对进口钢铁和铝产品加征关税给中方利益造成的损失。

???????(??? ???: 中华人民共和国, ???: 中華人民共和國, ??: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó ???????^[*])? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ??(??? ???: 中国, ???: 中國, ??: Zhōngguó ??^[*])??? ??? ??. ??? ????, ?? ??? ??????, ? ?? ?? ???? ????, ???, ???, ????, ????, ???, ?? ?? ??.

?? ????? 1911? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ???. ?? ??? ??? ???, 5·4 ??? ????? ??? ???? ??? ?????? 1920? ?? ??? ??? ???, ????? ???? ??? ???. ?? ?? ?? ?? ??? ???? ?? 1946? ?2? ?? ??? ?????, ? ?? ??? ? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? 1949? 10? 1? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ????? ???????? ??? ?????.

??? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ???, ?? ???? ???? ???? ??? ?? ??? ???. ?? ??? ??? ?? ???? ???? ?? ?????, ?? ???? ??? ???, ??? ??? ??? ??? ???. ? ???? ???? ????? ??? ???? ???, ?? ??? ???? ????? ????? ??? ??·??? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?????. ????? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?????, ????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ? ?? ??? ?????.^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8] ?? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ??.^[9]^[10]

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??? ??? ??(中国)?? ??(中华)?? ???? ??. ? ??? ????? ??(中共)??? ???? ??. ??? ?? ?????? ?????, ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ??? ???? ????.

?? ???? 1949? ??? ??? ???, ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ???? ???. 1949? ?? ?? ?? ???????? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ?????, ????? ??? ??? ???? ???.

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????? ?? 224? ??? 25? ? ? ????^[11] ??? ??? ???? ?????? ????, ?????? ?? ??? ?? ????? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ???.

?? ??? ??? ??? ? ??? ??? 2100?? ??? ?????. ???? ???? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ???. ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ????? ??? ??? ?, ??? ???? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ??? ?? ??. ???? ?????? ???? ??? ? ?? ??? ???? ?? ?? ?????.^[12] ???? ??? 17???? 11???? ?? ??? ????. ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ???? ?????.^[13] ???? ? ?? ?? ???? ??? ?? ???, ???? 11???? 5???? ?????. ?? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ?? ?????, ??? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??? ???? 300? ? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ????. 5??? 3?? ?? ??????? ?? ??? ???, ???? ?? ??? 7???? ?????.

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??????? ???? ??? 6??? ??????? ??? ???? ???. ???? ???? ??? ??? ???? ???? ???, ????? ??? ??? ???? ???, ??, ??, ?? ?? ?????. ?? 15? ?? ???? ????, ???? ?? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? ???.^[14]

???? ?? ?? ???? ??? ????, ? ???? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ???? ???.^[15] ???? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??? ?????, ???? ?? ???? ??? ???? ? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????.^[16]

??? ??, ???,???, ???? ??? ??? ??.^[17] ?? ??? ??? ?? ???? ??? ????, ?? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?? ???. ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ????(8???)? ??? ???? ?????, ???? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? 16?? ???. ?? ???? ???? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?, ?? ???? ????? ????? ???? ????. ? ???? ???? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?????, ???? ??? ???? ??. ???? ??? ??? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???? 581?? ???? ??? ??? ?????. ??? ????? ???? ? ??? ?????. ???? ???? ?? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??? ?????.^[18]^[19]^[20]^[21] ??? ? ???? ??? ?? ???? ???? 8??? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?????, ?? ????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ???? ??. ??? ???? ??? 907??? ???? ?? ?????. ???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ???? ?????. ??? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? ???.^[22]

10??? 11?? ?? ???? ??? ????? ??? ??, ??? ?? ?? ?? ?????.^[23] ?? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ??? ????, ?? ???? ??? ??? ???? ????? ??? ?? ???. 1127?, ??? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???? ????, ???? ???? ???? ???? ??? ???.

13???? ????? ?? ???? ??? ?????. 1271?, ??? ???? ?? ???? ???, 1279??? ???? ??? ?? ????. ?? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?? ???? ??, ????? ???? ???.^[24] ??? ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ???, 1368?? ???? ???? ???. ??? ????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ???? ????? ???? ??? ????.^[25] ??? ?? ???? ????? ??? ????? ???. ???? ?? ????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???. ???? ???? ??? ???? ???? ???? ?? ?? ???? ??? ????? ???. ?? ???? ????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?????.^[26]

1644?? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?????, ???? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ?? ?? ?????. ?? ???? ???? ??? ?? ?????. ???? 1644??? 1912??? ??????, ??? ??? ?? ????. ??? ??? ???? ???? ?????, ???? 2500? ?? ???? ?????. ??? ???? ????? ??? ?????. ?? ? ???? ??? ????? ????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??, ?????? ?????. ???? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ?? ?? ???? ????? ??????, ? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????? ???.^[27]^[28] 19?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??? ???? ?? ? ?? ???? ??? ???. ? ??? ????, ?? ??? ?? ??? ? ?? ???? ??? ???? ??? ??? ??? ?? ???. ??? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????, ???? ????? ???? ???.^[29] ???? ?? ??????, ? ?? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ??? ???. ??? 1850???? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? ??? ????, ?? ???? 1860??? ???? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ?? 1880??? 90??? ???? ??? ??? ??? ???? ???.

19??, 1876?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?? ?????. ?? 9?? ??? 1300? ?? ???? ?? ??? ????.^[30] ???? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ??????, ???? ???? ??? ???? ????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?????. ???? ????? ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? ????, 1911?? ????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ???.

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???? ?? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?????. 1912? 1? 1?? ??? ??? ????? ?????, ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?????. ??? ???? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ????. ?? ?? ??? ??? ?? ???.^[31] ??? ?? ????? ??? ? ???? ????? ??????? ????, ?????? ????? ??? ??? ?????. ??? ??? ???? ??? ???, ?? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????? ???? ??????.

1916?? ?????? ?? ??, ??? ????? ???? ????. ???? ??? ? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????, ???? ????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ???? ???. ?? ?? ???? ????? ? ???? ???? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ????. ??? ??? ??? ???? ?, 1920?? ??? ???? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ??????. ???? ??? ????? ???? ???, ??? ????? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ???.^[32]^[33] ??? ??? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?????, 1927???? ???? ??? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?????. ???? ???? ??? ???, ?????? ???? ??? ??? ? ?? ???. ?? ?? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?? ??? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?? ???.

?2? ????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ????. ? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?? ???? ?????, ? 2???? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ? ????? ? ? ?? ??? ???.^[34] ?? ?? ??? ?? ???? 4? ??? 30? ?? ??? ????? ???? ???? ???? ???.^[35] 1945?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ??????? ?????. ?? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ????. ??? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ????, ??? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ????? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ??? ?? ?????. ??? ??? ????? 1947?? ??? ??????, ?? ??? ????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??? ???? ????.

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?2? ?? ?? ?? ???? ????? ???? ????, ????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?????, ???? ? ?? ?? ??? ?????. ??? ??? ????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ??? ????, ??? ???? ?????. ????? ?????? ????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?? ?(新)??? ?????. ?? ????????? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??? ?????. ?? 80% ??? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?????. ???? ??? "?"?? ???? ?? ?? 80%? ???? ????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ?? ??. 1949? 10? 1? ???? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ?????.^[36] ? ?? ??????? ?????? ??. 1950??? ???? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ?? ?????. ?? ????? “5? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???? ? ???? ??”?? ?????. ??? ??? ??? ????? ?? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ??. ?????? ?? 1??~2?? ?? ???? ?? ????^[37] ? ???? ????? ????? ? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?? ???? ???? ?????.^[38] ? ??? ??? ??? 1950??? 5? 5?? ???? ??? 1974??? 9? ?? ????. ???? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??? ????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ??????, ??? ??? ???? ???? ??? ????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?? ???? 3? 5?? ?? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??? ???.^[39]

? ? ??? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?????, ????? ?? ??? ?? ?? ???? ????. ?? ? ???????? ????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ????, ??? ?? ?? ??? ???. ? ?? ??? ??? ?? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?????. ?? ???? 1976?? ????? ??? ?? ?????. ?? 1971? 10??? ???? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ?????, ????? ??? ?? ?????.^[40] ????? ?? ??, 4??? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ?????, ???? ?? ?? ???. ??? ???? ????? 1978?? ??? ???, ???? ?? ??, ?? ??? ?????.

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????? ?? ??? ??, ??? ?? ???? ???????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ? ? ???. ???? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ???, ????? ???? ? ?? ?? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ????. ?? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???? ?? ?????, 1989?, ??? ????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ???? ??? ??? ????, ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???.^[41]

???, ??, ??? ?? ????? 1990?? ??? ????. ??? ? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?? 1? 5?? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??????, ?? 11.2%? ??? ???? ?? ???? ???.^[42] 2001??? ??????? ??????, 2000???? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?? ?? ?? ?? ???? ?????. ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?????, ??? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????. ???????? 2010?? ??? ??? ?? 2? ?????? ????,^[43] 1?? GDP? 4,000??? ??? ?? ???? ??? ???? 10??? ??? ??? ??? ?????.^[44]

??? ???? ??? ???? 2012??? ???? ??. ???? ????? 3??? ???? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?? ????,^[45] ?? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???? ???? 1? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????? ?? ??.^[46] ?? ??? ?? ?? ?? ????? ??? ???^[47]^[48] ???? ??? ???? ‘?? ??’ ?? ‘?? ??’?? ??? ????? ??? ?? ??.^[49]

2019? 12?, ??????????-19(???19, COVID-19)? ???? ????? ?????,^[50] ??? ?? ???? ?????. ???? ???? ????? ??? ???19 ????? ????.

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???????? ??? 9,596,961 km²??, ?? ????? 4??? ?? ????.^[51] 2015? 11? 3? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ???? ????? 4.7km²? ??? ???? ???????? ??? 9,596,965.7 km²? ???. ???????? ???? ?? ??? ??. ??? ? 22,117km?, ??? ???? ?? ? ????. ????? ???, ???????????(???, ??), ???? ???, ??, ????? ?????? ?????, ??????, ?????, ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ??, ??, ??????, ??, ????? ???, ????? ?????? ???, ???, ???? ???. ????? ??? ??? ?? ????, ????? ??? ?? ??, ??? ??? ??? ?? ????? ???.

???????? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ?? ? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??. ??? ????? ???? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??, ???? ?????, ???? ?? ??? ??? ??. ???? ?? ?? ?? ??? ???? ??? ??????(?????)?? ??? 8,850m??. ?? ?? ?? ?? ???? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??? -154m??.

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1949? 10? ??????? ?? ???? ??, ??, ?, ?? ?? ??? ??? ????????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ??? ???? ????? ????? 1954? ???? ???? ????? ??? ?????. 1949? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ?? ???????? ??? 1982??? 4?? ??? ??? ?? ??????·?????? ?? ???? ????? ?????. ??? ??? ???????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ???, ??? ?? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ?????(???·???·????? ??)? ????? ???? ??. ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ????.

?????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ???, ?????? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ? ???? ?? ??? ?? ?? ?? ???, ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ??? ???? ??. ??? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ?? ????????? ?? ??? ??? ???^[52] ??????? ?? 57?? ?? ????????? ?? ???????? ???? ??? ?? ?? ??? ????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ???,^[53] ?????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ???? ??.^[54]

??? ??? ???? ???? ???? ???, ?? ?? ????? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ?????(政治局常務委員會)? ??? ???? ????. ?????? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ????. ?????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?? ????? ?? ?? ??? ??? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ????.

?????? ?? ??? ????????(全國人民代表大會)? ??? ???? ?????? ???. ????????? ??? ??? ???? ??? 32?? ?, ???, ???, ?? ?? ? ??????? ???? ??? ????. ??? ??? ?? ??, ?? ? ?? ??? ??, ???? ?? ??? ???? ????, ?? ??, ?? ?? ?? ? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??, ????. ??? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ??. ??? ????? 18? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?????, ????? ????? ?? ?????, ????? ?? ??? ???? ????. ????????? ???? ???????? ??? ????. ??? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ???, ? ?? ??????? 8?? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?? ???.

?? ??? ?????????? ????, ??? 5??? 2?? ???? ??? ? ??. ????? ???? ??? ????? ????, ??? ????, ??, ???, ????, ? ??, ? ??? ??, ??? ???? ????. ??? 2018? 3? 11? ?????????? ??? ???? ??? ?????.

??? ??? ???? ????????? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ? ??? ??, ????. ?? ??, ?? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ????.

?????? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ???????? ??? ????. ????????? ?????? ??? ???.

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1997? ???? ???? ??? 1999? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ??? ?? ?? ?? ????, ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????. ??? ?? ??? ?????? ??. ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??. ?? ?? ???? ??? ??? ???? ????? ??? ????.

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???? ??? ? ??? ?????, ??? ?????? ? ? ??? ??(???:?????)? ????? ??? ?????. ?? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ???? ????? 1912?? ??????, ?? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ? ??? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?????. ??? ? 1945? 8? 15? ????? ???? ??? ???? ????, ????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?? ?????. ??? 1945??? 1949? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ??? ?????, ?? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??? ????? ???? ??? ?? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ??, ? ????? ???. ?? ????? 1949? 10? 1?? ????? ???????? ??? ??????, ?? 1970????? ??? ??? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? ????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ???? ????^[55] UN??? ????? ??? ????? ??? ???? ???. ??? 1971?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???? ???? ???, ??? ???? ????? ?? ???????? ????? ?????? ?? 10? 25?? 2758? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?????.^[56] ?? ???????? 90?? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?????, ? ??? ??? ???? ????? ???, ????? ?????. ???????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ????? ??? ???? ???, ?? ????? ????? ? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??. ??? ???? ???? ???????? ?? ???? ?? ???, ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??.

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???????? ??????? ????? ? ????????. ???? ??, ??, ??, ??, ??, ??, ??, ???? ? ????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ????, ?? ?? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ????. ???? ??, ???, ????, ? ??? ??, ????, ??? ??, ????? ????. 28?? ??? ???? ??.

???????? ?? ??? 22?? ?(省)^[57], 5?? ???(??? ???: 自治区, ???: 自治區), 4?? ???(??? ???: 直辖市, ???: 直轄市), 2?? ?????(??? ???: 特别行政区, ???: 特別行政區)? ????. ? ??? ?????( ??, ???)? ??? ??? ?? ??(??? ???: 中国大陆, ???: 中國大陸; ?? ??)?? ???.

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???????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ???, ?? ???? ??? ?? ?? ??, ?? ?? ???? ?? ?? ?? ??? ????? ??. '???????'? ???? 1949? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?????, 1979? ?? ?? ??? ???? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??.

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??? ???? ??? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ????. ???????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??.^[58] 1950? 5? 9? ???? ?? ????? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ?????. ??? ??? ????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ???? "??? ??? ??"?? ?? ?? ???. ????????, ?? ?? ???, ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???. ???, ??? ??? ?? ??? ??, 1964? 1?? ???? ??? ??,^[59] 1979? 1? 1??? ??? ???? ? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???, ??? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ???. ??, ?? ?? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ^{[??? ??]}, "??? ???? ??? ??? ????? ??? ?????????"?? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ??? ????. 1989? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??-?? ?? ?? ??? ???? ???. 1978??? ??? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????, 2001??? ???????? ?????. ?????? 1992??? ???????? ?? ? ??? ???.

???????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ‘??? ??’??? ??? ??? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ???? ???. ????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??. UN ??? ? 12??(???? ????)? ????? ???? ??, ??? ??????? ? ???? ??? ????? ??. ???? 1949? 10? 5? ???????? ????, ??? 10? 7? ??? ?? ??? ???.^[60]^[61]

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? ??? ????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??. ??? ??? ??? ???? ?? ?? ????, ????? ??? ??? ???, ???? ?? ?? ????. ???? ??? ?? ?? ??? ????. ???, 1991? 5? 16?? ??? ?? ?? ???? ??? ?? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????? ??? ? ????? ???? ????????.

???????? ??????????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???????? ??? ?? ??? ?? ????? ???? ???? ??.

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????? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??. ???????? ??? ???, ??? ??? ???? ???? ??.

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1970?? ??, ????? ???? ??? ??? ??? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ??? ???? ????????, ???? ???? 1991? ?? ?? ? ????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?? ? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ????? ???? ???? ????. ?? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??, ??, ??? ??? ???? ???? ??? ???????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ???.

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??? ???????? ??? ??(??)? ??? ?? ?? ????.^[62] ??? ??? ?? ??? ‘???’? ?? ‘?? ?????’??. ?? ?? ???? ????400?????. ?? ?? ?? ???? 2,285,000???. ?? 7,470?, ??? 4,092?, ?? 562?? ???? ??. ?? ???? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?? 2?? ??? ???? ??? ??? ??. ?? ??? ???? T-72? ??? '99?'??? ???? ????, IL-28??? ?? ???? ???? ??. ??? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ???? ??·?? ? ???·?? ??? ?? ???? ???? ????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ??. ?? ????, ??, ??, ???, ??? ?? ????? ??? ??? ??.

????

??? ???? 1955? ??? ??? ?? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?? 100??? ????? ????? ?????. ?? ? ??? ????? MIT-Caltech ??? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ???? MIT?? ???, Caltech?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ????. ? ? MIT ??? ?? ?? ??? ???? ?, ??? ??? ??? ??? ? ???.

??????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ?? ??? ???? ????? ?????. ??? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ????? ???, ??? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???? ???. ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ?? ???? ???? ??? ????. ??? ??? ??? ??? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??? ???????, ?? ?????? ??? ??? ?? ????? ??? ??, ???? ? ??? ?? ??? ?? ???. 1970?? ????? ?? ????, ??? ?? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?????, ???? ??? ???? ?? ?, ?? ?? ?? ?? ???? ??, ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ?? ???.

??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ???? ????? ???, ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ????? ?? ?? ?? ??? ???? ???. ??? ????? ??? ??? ?? ????? 1959? ???? ???? ??? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???.

1950?? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ?????, ??? ??? ???? ????? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ???.

??? ? ???? ????? ??? ??? ?? ???? ???(邓稼先, 1924-1986)????. 1941? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ??? 1945? ????. 1946? ?? ??? ?? 1950? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ???. ?? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???(1957? ?????? ??)? ??? ?? ?? ?????, ???? ??? ????, ????? ???? 1?? ?? ??? ??? ??, 1950? 10? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ????. ???? ??? 1959? ?? ??? ??? ???? ?? ?? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ??? ?? ???. ???? ?? ???? ????? ???, ?? ??? ???? ???? ??? ?? ??? 1986? ?? ??? 62?? ??? ????. ????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? 90??? ???? ?? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?? ?? ???.

???? ? 1959? ??? ????? ???? ??? R-2? ???? ????, ?? ?? ??? ???? ??? ??(DF) ??? ???? ???? ??. ?? ???? 1962??? ??? ????, 2??? 1964? 10? 16? ????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ???? 596 ????(????)? ????. ??? 3?? 1967? 6? 17??? ??, ??, ??? ?? TNT 3.3??? ??? ???? ???? ????.

?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ????. ??? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ???? ??? ?????, ??? ??? ????? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ??? ?? ? ?????, ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ????? ??. ???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ????. 10?? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ????? ??? ???? ??? ??? ??????.

??? ??, ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ????? ??. ?? ??? ???? ???? 22????? ? ?? ?? ??? ????.

?? ??? ??-??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???. ????? ???? ???? ??? (?????? ???????) ?? ??, ??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ?? ????? ???. ???? ??? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? "???? ??? ?? ?????"?? ??? ???? ??. ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? "??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???. ? 40? ?? ????."?? ????? ???? ??. 1960?? 40? ??? ???? ??? ???? ????.

??? ICBM??? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ????. ??? ?? ??? ????? R-7? ???? ???, ??? ?? ??? ????? ??? ???? ????, ????? R-7? ????? ??, V2? ?????? R-1? ?? ?????? ?? R-2? ????. ???? ??? ???, ???, ???? ?? ???? ???? ??? ???? ??? ? 1400??? ???? ?????, ?? ? ??? ???? 100?????.

??? ??? ???? ??? ?? "???"? ?????, ??? ??? ?? ????? ???? ?5???? ??? ???. ??? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??? ???, ???? ????? ?? ?????. ???? ???? ???? ??? ???, ???? ?????? ????? ????? ???, ?? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ??.

??? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ??, "????? ????? ??? ? ??"? ????. ????? ????? ????? ????, ??? ??? ??? ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??????, ?? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????? ???? ???? ??.

??? ???? ??? ??? 1960? ??? ?????, ???? ????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ???? ????. ???? ??? ?? ??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??-???? ??? ???? ?? 100??, ???? ??? R-2 ??? ? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ???, ??? ???? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??????.?? ? ???? ??? ??? ????? ? ???? ???? ????? ??? ???, ???? ?? ??? ???? ????.

??? ??? ????? ??? ?? ???? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ????. ????? 1960? 11? ???? ??? ??? ?????? R-2 ???? ??(DF)-1? ??? ????? ????. ??? ? 1000km? ?????? ?? DF-1? ???? ???? ??? ???, ??? ? ? ??? ????? ??? ???? ??? ?????. ???? ????? ??? ??? ? ??? ???, ??? ?? ???? ???? ??? ???? ????? ??.

??? ?? ??? ???? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??? ????? ??? ??? ??? ? ???? ???. ??? ?????? DF-2? ??? ????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ?? ????. ??? ??? ??? ??? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??? ??? ??? ????. 5??? ?? ?? DF-2? ?? ???? ??? ??? DF-2A? 1965? ??? ?????, ??? ? ??? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??? ?????. ? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?? ???? ????? ???. ?? "? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ??? ? ??? ?? ?? ???"?? ?? ???? ??? ?? ????? ?? ?? ????? ??.

1966??? ??? ????? ??? ??? ?? ????? ??? ???, ?5???? ??? ???? ??? ??? ????? ???? 2?? ???? ???? ??? ?? ??. ??? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??? ? ???. ?????? ?? ??? ??? ???, ????? ??? ??? (???? ???? ???) ???? ????? ? ? ?? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ????.

??? ??? DF-2? ??? ??? ??? ??, ??? ??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?? 5??? ???? ?? ???? ???. ?? ??? ??? ?????????, ??? ??? ????? ??? D.C.? ?? ??? DF-5 ??? ?? ??? ???.

??? ??? 4??? ????, (4??? ????) ???? ??? ?2?? ??? ????? ????? 1970?? ?? 4??? ???? ?5 ????? ???? ?? ?????. ??? ? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?????, ??? ??? ?? ????? ???? ???? ???, ??? ??? ??? ??? ????, 1980? ????? ??? ICBM? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ???? ICBM ??? ????. ? ICBM? DF-5?? ???? 1981? ?? ????.

2010? ??? ????? ????? ??? ??? ?? 240???. ?? ?? ? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?? ?? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?? ????. ?? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?? ? ??.

??? D.C., ??, ???? ? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?? ???? 2000?? ???? 20?? ????? ??? 150???? ????, DF-41 ? ?? ICBM ??? ?? ?? ???. ?? ??? ??? ????? ???? 5000km ?? ??? ?????, ????? ????? ??? ??, ??? ??? ??? ???? ?? ? ???? ???? ?? ????.

??? ??? ??? ? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????? 5? ?? ??? ?? ????.

??? ???? ?? ???? "??? ?? ???? ???? ?? ?, ??? ???? ???? ???. ?? ??? ??? ???? ????? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?"??? ??? ?? ??.("???? ???? ???? ????") ??? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ?? ? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?? ???. ??? ??? ?? ???? ???? ?? ?? 2?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ??? ??? ???? ???, ?? ??????? ? ??? ???? ? ? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??.

??

???? ???? ???????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ?????. ??? ??? ?? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??? ????? ??? ????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ??. ??? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?? ????? ???? ???? ???? ???????? ??? ??? ???. ???? ???? ? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ???? ??.

1978?? ????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?? ?? 6%? ???? ?? ???? ???? ???, ?? ?? ?? ?2? ?????? ??. 2010?? 2019? ??, ??? ??GDP ????? 25%?? 39%? ??? ?????.

1978?? ???? ?? ??, ??? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ????. ?? ????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ???? ??? ???, ? ??? ???, ???, ???, ???, ??? ??, ???, ???, ???, ???, ????, ??? ??? ?? ???? ??. ???? ??? 10? ?? ???? ? 3?? ?????, ?? ???, ??, ?? ?? ???? ??. ? ????? ??? 2019? ???? 10? ??? ??? ???? ????.

??? ?? ?? ??? ????? ??, 2018? ???? ??? ???? ???? 50%? ????. 2018? ? ???? ??? 174GW ??? ??? ??? ???? ???, ??? ??? ???? 40%? ????.

??? 1978? ?? ??? ?? ?? ?? ???? ???? ??????, 1981?? 1.9?? ???? ???? ???? ??? 88%?? ?? ??? 2013??? ?? 1.85%? ??? 8?? ??? ???? ???? ???. ????? ??? ?? ????? ?? 1990?? 2013? ??? 7? 5?6?? ??? 2,500? ??? ???? ???. ??? ???? ???? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ????, ???? ???? 2017?? 3.1%?? 2018??? 1%? ???.

???

??????

??? ?????

???????? ??? ???? ? ?????? ?? 1949? ???? ? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????? ????. ?2????? ? ???????? ??·??? ?????

1949~52?? ?????
1953~57?? ?1? 5?????
1958~60?? ?2? 5????? (2? ??? ??)
1961~63?? ???
1966~70?? ?3? 5?????
1971~75?? ?4? 5?????
1976~85?? ???? 10????

? ????? ??? ????, 1979~81?? ?????? ?? 1986~90?? ?7? 5????? ?? 2010??? ?9? 5????? ????.

???? ?? ??? ???? ??

?????

?? ? ??? ???, ??????? 1952?? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ????, ?1? 5?? ???(1953~57?)?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ? ???. ??? ? ??? ???? (a) ???? ??? ??? ??, (b) ??? ??, ??? ??, (c) ????·???? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ??, (d) ??? ???? ?? ??? ?????.

??? ??

1958?? ??? ?2? 5????(?????)??, ???? ????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ??. ?????? ?????? ??? ?? (a) ??? ????, (b) ???? ???, (c) ????? ????, (d) ??? ??? ??? ??, (e) ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????, ? ??? ???? ???? 40%? ???. ??? ????? ????? ?? ????? (a) ???? ?????? ????? ???, (b) ??? ?? ??? ??, ???, ??? ??? ????, (c) ????? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ????, (d) ????? ??? ??? ?????.

????

??? ?????? ?? 1958??? ????? ?????. ?? ?????? ? ??? ?? 1959~61?? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ????? ?? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ? ???? ??? ?? ? ?·? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? 1960? 7? ?? ???? ?? ?·???? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ????, ????? ???? ??? ????? ?????.

?????

??? 1961???? ?????? ???? ????, ???? ??, ??? ???? ??? ? ??? ???? ? ??? ?????. 1961??? ??·???·??·???? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?? ?????. 1962??? ????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ????. ?? ??? ??, ???, ???? ???? ??? ???? ??? ??? 2??? ?? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?????, ?? ???? ??? ??? ?? ???? ?????.

??????

3? 5????(1966~70?) ?? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ????? ????. 1967? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?? ??, ?? ??? ???? ??? ??? ????. ??? ????? ????? ??? ??? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???, 1968? ?? ??? ??? ????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???.^[63] ??, ?? ?? ? 1970?? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ???.

????

1978??? ???? 10?? ??? ???? 4? ???? ????? ?? ??? ??? ????, 1979? ????? ????? ???? ??? ????? ?????. 1980???? ??? ???, ????? ?? ??, ??? ???, ?? ?? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?, 1984? ??? ????? ?????. ?? 1985? ???? ??????? ????, 1986? 4? ??? ??? ??? ? ??? ??? ??? ? ?7? 5????(1986~90?)? ????.^[64]

??? ??

????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ?? ?? ?? ??, ??????? ??? ??? ???? ‘??? ??’???? ??? ??.^[65]??????(WTO)? ????, 2003?? ? ?? ????? 535? ??? ?? ??? ??? ????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ???.^{[?? ??]} ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ????? ??? ? ??? ??? ??? ??.

??? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?????, ??? ? ? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??.^{[?? ??]} ??? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??. ?? ???? ???? ??, ??? ????·??? ?? ??? ???? ??? '??? ??’??? ?? ??? ???. ??????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ? ?? ?? ??? ?? ???? ??.^{[?? ??]}

?? ????? ????? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ?????? 8.5%? ?????. ?? ??? ?? ?? ?????? 6.3%? ? ??? ?????.^{[?? ??]}

??

??? ???? ??? ?? ??

???? ??? ??? ??? 3? ??? ???, ????, ????, ??????.

??? ??

???????? ??? ??? ??? ?? ???? ???, ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ????? ??? ???????? ????? ?? ?? ??? ??. ??? ???? ?? ??? ????? ? ???? ???(淮河)? ??(秦嶺)??? ??(水稻)??? ??(小麥) ???? ?? ?? ???, ???? ?? ????? ??(長江)?? ???, ?? ???, ??·?(茶)?, ?????, ?? 2???(二期作區)? ????, ?? ??? ????? ????·???, ????·??, ????? ????.

???? ????

??? ????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ????? ?·???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ? ??? ??? ????, ????? ????? 2???? ? ?? ??. ?? ???????? ??? ?? ????? ??? ? ??? ????, ??? ??? ??? ??? ???. ??(?)? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??·?? ??(兩省) ?? ??? ???? ????.

?

?? ????? 17,825?t(1994? ??)?? ?????? ?? ?? ?2???? ????? ?? ??? ??? ????.

?

??(?)? ???? ??? ???? ??? ???? ?? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ?2????? ????. ??(陜西), ??(山西) ???? ???? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ????. ??? 3,200?t(1994? ??)?? ??, ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ???? ????.

???

???? ??, ???, ???? ???? ?, ?? ?? ??? ??? ?? ? ?? ???? ?? ????.

???

???? ?????, ?? ??? ???(湖北)??, ??·??? ???? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ???.

?

?? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ? 1,212? t??. ??? ???? ??? ?????? ??(湖南, ??, ????(貴州)? ? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????, ??·??? ??, ??, ??, ???, ???? ??? ? ?? ??? ?? ??.

??

??? ????? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???.

??

??? ??, ?, ?? ?? ??? ?????? ??, ??(?????), ?, ??(????), ?(????) ?? ??? ?? ?? ? ?(毛) ????? ????, ??? ??, ??·??? ??, ??? ? ?? ???? ?? ????.^[66]

???

????????? ?? ?? ??? ???, ??? ????, ??? ??, ??? ?????? 3? ??? ???? ????? ???? ??? ???. ??? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????.

??????? ??? ???????? ???? ?? ?? ??? ???, 2007? 3?? ?10? ??? ?3? ?????, ???? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ????, ??? ??? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?????.

??

?? ??? ?? ??

2??? ?? ???????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ????? ??(艦砲) ?? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??·??? ??? ???? ???. ??? ?? ??? 1937?? ????? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ????, ? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?????. ?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ???, ??, ??, ??? ??? ??? ??? ??·???? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ??, ???? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?????. ?????? ??, ??·????? ????, ??, ???? ????, ???? ???, ??? ????, ??? ????? ????? ???? ??. ?? ??????? ????? ??, ???, ??? ????, ??(造船)? ??, ??? ????, ?? ??? ??, ????, ??? ???? ???? ??, ??, ????? ???, ???, ??, ??·???? ?????, ??? ???? ???? ??.??(戰前) ???????? ??? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??, ???? ???? ?? ???, ??, ?? ? ??? ??? ?? ??? ? ??? ?? ???. ??(戰後) ???? ?????? ???? ????? ???, ??, ???, ??, ??, ??, ???? ??? ???? ???? ? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ????.????? ?? ???, ??? ??? ??? ?? ????, ??, ????, ?? ?? ???? ???? ??(乳類)? ???? ???? ????, ???, ??????? ??·??? ???? ? ?????? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ??·????? ??? ???? ??. ????? ??·??, ?? ?·??? ??·??·??·??? ???? ?? ??? ??.^[67]

??

2017? ???? ??? ?? ?? ???? ?? (19.01%), ??(12.34%), ??(6.06%), ??(4.54%), ???(3.16%)??. ?? ?? ???? ??(9.63%), ??(8.99%), ???(8.46%), ??(8.38%)?? ?? ??? ???? ?? ?? ??? ?????. 2017? ???? ????? 2,263,371?? ??, ????? 1,843,793?? ????. ?? ?? ??? ??? ??(165,991,555.66??), ?? ??(89,690,331? ??), ?? ??(74,102,011? ??), ???(68,167,379? ??), ??? ??(51,057,293? ??)??. ?? ?? ??? ???(260,920,122? ??), ??(163,820,666? ??), ???,604,641? ??), ???(48,740,696? ??), ??? ??(41,293,629? ??)??.^[68]

?? ??

?? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? 80%? ???? ??? ?? ?? ????? ?? ?? ??? ???, ?? ??? ???? ???? ???????? ??? ????. ? ?? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ????, ?? ??? ???? ??? ????????(???)?? ??? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ??? ???? ? ???? ???? ??. 2005? 3?? ??? ??, ???? ???? "???? ?? ??"? ??? ???? ??. ??, ???? ????? ???, ??? ??, ??, ??, ?? ?? ??? ???? ???. ??? ? ?????? ?? ? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??. ??? ??? ??? ??? ????, "???? ??"? ??? ?????? ?????. ? ??? ????, ?? ??? ???? ????, ??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???. ??? ????? ???? ???? ???, ? ???? ??? ???? ??.^[69] ^:497 1990? ???? 50%??, ?? ?? ???. ^{[?? ??]} ??, ??? ?? ??? ????? ? ?????.

??

????? ?? ?? ??? ??? ????

'???????? ??'? 1949???, ?? 1980?? ???? ?? ?????.

??, ??, ?? ??? 2010??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ????. ?? ????? ??? ??? 20?? ???? 2?? ??? ????, ??? ?? ??. ?? ????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ??. ????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ? ?? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?????. ??? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???, ????? ??? ????? ??? ?? ??? ?? ?? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??. ?? ?? ????? ?? ??? ? ?? ??? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ????.

?? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??, ???? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ?????.

???? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ??? ???? ???? (?? ? ~ ???)? ??? ??? ????, ??? ??? ????, ??? ????? ?? ??? ???. ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? 1949? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ???.

??? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ???. ????, ??? ??? ??? ?? ??? ????, ?? ???? ??? ??? ?????. ??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?? ??? ?????. ?? ??? 1990?? ?? ??? ???, ??? ??? ?? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?? GDP? 1%? ??? ??? ????.

??? ?? ??? ?? ??? 20%?? ??? 10%, ?? ???? 5%? ?? ????. ??? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??. ?? ??, ?????, ???? ??, ????, ?? ??? ?? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??.

??? ?

??? ????? ??? ??? ??. ??? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???. ?? ??? ? ??? 2009?? 86,000km? ?????. ?? ??? 89.6km/10,000km²?, ??? ????? ??? 0.29?? ????. ?? ??? ?? 215??/km, ???? 60??? ????, ???? ????? 85%? ??? ??. ??? ??? ???? ??? 1978??? ???? ??? ??? ??? ???? 89?km? ????.^[70] ?? ??? 1990?? ??? ????? ???? ?????, ?? ??? ??? ?? ???? ?? ?? ????. 1990??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ????? 2009? ???? 65,000km? ???.^[71] ??? ?? ????, ??? ?? ?? 2?? ???? ????.

1,200??? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?? ???, ?? ??? ??? ??? ???. ??? ???? ????(南船北馬)? ??? ?? ?? ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? ???. ??? ??? ??? ???? ???? ??? ???? ??? ???? ??? ????? ??? ???, ???? ?? ??? ???·??? ?? ??? ?? ??.^[72] ??, ???? ??? ????. 1956? ??? ?????? ? ??? 1?7,194km??. ???? ???? ????, ??, ???, ??, ????? ??? ????? ???? ?? ?? ????? ???? ???? ???? ??. ??? ??? ????? ?? ??? ? ??? ???. ??? ????? 10~15?? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ???? 8~10???? ? ? ??.^[73] ??? ???? ???? ????? ?? ? 20? ???? 26? ???, ???? ??? 22? ?? 30? ??? ?? ?? ???. 2010? 8?, ????? 83%, ??????? 83.6%? ???? ????. 8? ?? ??, ?? 35?2??? 29?4??? ???? ?????.^[74]

??

??? ??

??? ??? ???? ?? ?? ??????. ???? ??? ?? ?? 80% ??? ??? ??? ?? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ???. "?"??? ?? ??? ?? ?? ?? ??? ??? ? ? ???. ??? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?? ???? ??? ? ??? ??? ???? ??? ? ?? ?? ??? ???? ?????. ?? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???? ????? ? ? ?? ???. ???? ??, ???? ?? ??? ??? ???? ?? 80% ??? ??? ?? ???? ??(漢族)?? ????? ??? ?? ????????? ?? ??? 92%? ???? ? ? 55?? ?? ???? 8%??. ?? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ???? ????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??????, ?? 1970? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ?? ??.

?? ??? ???? ??? ?? ??? ????. ???? ??? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ?? ?? ???? ??? ?? ???. ??? ?? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ??? ???? ?? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?? ?? ?????? ???. ??? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ??? ???. ?? ???? ??? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ??? 1970???? 1?? ???? ?? ?? ?????.^[75] ?? ??? ??? 2015? ?? 13? 5,569? ?????, ??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??. ?????? 0.52%(2010?~2015?)?? 1995? ?? 1% ??? ?? ???? ???? ??. 1979??? ?? ?????? ? ??? ? ???? ?? ??? ???? ??. 1?? ???? ???, ???? ?? ?? ?? ??? ????, ??? ???? ??? ??? ????. ??? ?? ????? ?(多)??? ??? ???? ????? ???, ??? ???? ??? ??. ?? ??? 37.0??? 2015? ?? ?? ??? 9.55%? ??? ??? ????. 2040???? 65? ??? ?? ??? 20%? ???, ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??. ??? ??? ???, ??? 2002? 9? 1?? "??? ?? ???"? ????, ???? 1?? ??? ?????.^[69] ^:497^[76] ???? ?? ??? ??? ???? ?(省)? ???? ???(雲南省)?? 35? ??? ???? ??.

21???? ??? ???? ?? ???????? ??? ???? ????. 2023? 12? ??? ??? ???? 1? ???? ????.

??

?? ???? ?? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???(普通話)? ???? ?? ???? ?? ????. ??? ???? ?? ??? ??? ? ? ???? ???? ???? ????.

???? ?? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?? ????(北方方言), ??(吳語, ???? ?), ???(廣東語), ???(福建語), ???(客家語)? 5?? ???? ??? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???. ?? ? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????(北京話)? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ????(現代白話, ??)? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??.

???? ???? ??? ? 6? ? ????, ? ? 2,500?? ????? ???? ??. ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ???(簡體字)? ?? ???? ??.

????? 56?? ?????? ?? ??? 98%? ??? ??(漢族)?? ????? ??? ?? ??. ??(漢族)? ??? 98%? ?? ??? ??? ??(漢族) ?? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ????? ??(漢族)? ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ????? ??? ????? ????? ? ? ??? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ??. ????? ??? ? ?? ??? ?? ???? ????. ?? ?? ???? ??, ????, ???? ?? ?? ???. ???? ? ??? ??? ???(納西族)? ?? ??(東巴文)? ?? ?? ??? ??.

?? ???? ?? 1990?? ?? ??? ????? ???? ???, ?????? ?????? ???? ????.

??

?? ??? ???? ?? CIA ??? ??? ? 9.1%?, ?? ????. ?? ????? ???? ?? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??? ? ?? ????? ??? ???? ??. 2003? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ?? ??? ????? 6??? ???? 9??? ?????. ??? 9?? ???? ??? 7?? ???. ????? ???? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ??. ?? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ???, ????(??? ????? ??) 3?? ?? 6? 7?? 6? 8?? ???. ??? ??, ??, ????, ????, ???? ???.

???

2019? 6? 5? ?? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ?? ?? 4? ? ?? ?? ??? 0?? ???. ? ??? ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ???.^[77] ??????? ????? ??. ????? 1931?? ??? ????? '???????'? ?? ????, 1934??? ???? ????? ?? ???? 1937??? ???? '?????'?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???. ??? 《????》, ??????? ??? ??? ??. ? ? ????? ???? ????? 《??????》, 《????》, ?????? ?? ???, 《????》? ?? ????? ?? ???.

???????? ???? ??? 《????》??, ??? ????? ?????. ? ??? 1948?? ?????. ? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ??, ????, ?? ?? ?? ???? ???, ???? ??? ???? ??? 7?? ????? ???? ??. ? ?? 《????》, 《????》, 《????》? ????, 《????》? ????? ?? ??? ?????. ???? ??? 《??????》? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?? ??? ????? ??.

??? ????? ??????(CCTV)? ??? ????, ????TV?? ?? ???, ???????? ?? ????? ?? ????, 1980??? ??? ????. ??????? ??? ????? BBC? ?? ? ??.^[78]

??

?? ???? ????, ????, ?? ???, ??, ???, ???, ??? ?? ????? ???? ???. 1973?? ?1? ????????? ??? ??, ????? ?? ??? ??? ????, 1979?? ?????(??) ??? ??? ??????. 1983??? ????? ?? ???? ??? ???. 1988?? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ???, 1997?? ?? ???? ???????? ?????. ?? 1998?? ??? ???? 1984?? ????? ???????? ?????????? ?????, 2008? 3??? ??????? ?????. ??? ???? ????, ????? ??? ????? ??. ??? ?????? ???, ???? ??? ???, ??????? ??????? ???? ?? ?? ???? ?? ?, ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??.^[69] ^:497

???? ? ????

????

?? ???, ??, NGO? ??? ?? ?? ??? ????? ??. ?? ???? ?? ???? ??, ?? ??, ?? ??, ??, ??? ??, ??? ??^[79] ?? ? ?? ????. ??? ???? ??? ???? ??? ?? ??? ????,^[80] ?? ????? 1989?? ??? ??? ?? ‘?? ??’? ??? ? ???? ???? ???? ?? ??? ????. ??? ?? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ????, ????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ‘?????(九評共産黨)’? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??. 2010? ???????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??? ????? ??.

??? ??? ???, ??? ????, ??? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ???, ???, ???? ??? ???? ??? ???. 1990???? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??????, ???, ???, ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??. ???????? ???? ????? ??? ‘???’? ??? ??, ??? ??, ??? ??? ?? ??, ??? ??, ??? ???, ??? ?? ???? ??. ??? ??? ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ???? ???.^[81] ?? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ????, ??? ???? ??? ??????.^[82]^[83] 2020??? ?? ????? ????? ?? ‘????????’? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??? ????? ??? ???. ???????? ?? ?? ?? ????? ???? ???, ?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ???? ???? ????? ??? ? ?? ??? ????? ????.^[84]

1992??? ??? ???? ??? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? 1999?? 7?? ?? ??? ????? ???? ???. ?? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?????, ???? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?????.^[85]

2016? ??????? ???? ?? ??? 0.25% ? 380? ??? ?? ???? ??, ?? ??, ?? ??, ?? ???? ?? ?? ??? ??? ‘?? ??? ??? ??’? ?? ??? ?????.^[86] ?? ??? ?? ??? ????? 2013?? ??????, ? ?? ?? ???? ???? ?? ?? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??. ??? ?? ????? ??(劳改) ???? ??? ?? ???, ??? ?? ?? ?? ???? ???? ???, ???? ??? ?? ? ???? ????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ???.

????? ??? ?? ??? ???, ???? ???? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??? ???? ????.^[87] 2019?? 400?? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ??????^{[?? ??]}, ?? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ????. ? ?????? ?? ? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ???.^[88]

???? ??

???????? 1950?? ?? ??? ????? ??? ????? ???? ?? ?? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??.^[89] ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?? ?? ??? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?????^[90].

??? ?? ??? ???? ?? ?? ?? 1?? ?? ??? ??? ????? ??? ?? ???? ?? ‘?? ??? ????’? ????? ???? ??? ????. ? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ??, ???, ??? ?? ?? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ????.^[91]^[92] 2019? 1?, UN? ? ??? ? ???? 110? ?? ??? ????, ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??? ?????. ??? ??? ?? ??? ?? ?? ???? ???, ?? ?? ?? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?? ????.^[93]

?? ??

?????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ? ??? ??? ????? ??? ?? ??.^[94] ???? ???? ?? ????? ??? ??? ??? ??^[95]?? ??? ??, ??? ???? ? ??? ??? ???? ???? ????? ????? ???? ??.

????

?? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?? ?? ?? ???? ??. ?? ?? ?? 2018? ????? ?? ????? ??? ??????, ??? ‘???????’? ?? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????? ??????. ? ??? ?????? ? 6?? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??.^[96] ?? 21??? ?? ??? ? ??? ??? ???? ?? ?? ?? ??? ????? ??.

????

???????? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ?? ???? ???? ??? ??? ????? ?? ?? ????? ??.

??

?????? ?? ??? ??, ?? ???? ?? ??? ????. ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??. ??? ????, ??? ??? ????? ?(代)? ?? ???? ????. ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? ??? ?? ????. ?? ??? ?? ??? ????, ?? ????? ???? ?? ??? ??. ??? ?? ?????? ?? ???. ?????? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ?? ??? ?? ???? ??. ??, ??, ???, ???, ??, ??, ??????? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ????. ?? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?? ?? ?? ????? ???? ??? ??? ??.

?? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ????. ????? ??? ?? ??? ?? ?? ?? ??? ??? ?? ?????. ? ??? ?? ????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??????, ? ??? ??, ?, ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ? ????? ????? ??? ???? ???. ?? ??? ?? ????? ??? ??? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?? ?????.

???????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?????, ????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??? ???. ??? ????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???, ?????, ??? ?? ?? ???? ?????. ?? ???? ???????? ???? ?? ??? ? ????? ????? ??, ???? ???? 1960??? ??? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ????? ‘??? ??’, ?? ‘????? ???’?? ???? ???? ?????? ????. ?? ??, ??, ??, ??? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ???? ??????, ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??.

?? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ? ???? ?? ????? ??. ?? ????, ????? ???? ?????? ???, ?? ????? ?? ??? ??? ? ???? ?? ???? ???. ?? ??? ???? 3??? ???? ?? ?? ????, 2010??? 5,570? ?? ??? ????? ?????. ??? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???, 2012? 10?? 7? 4?? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?? ?? ?? ?????? ????.

??

?? ??? ? ??? ???? ??? ????. ?? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??, ??, ???, ???, ??? ? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??. ?? ??? ???? ?? ??, ??, ???? ?? ???, ?? ??????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???. ??? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ?? ???? ????, ??? ??? ?? ??? ????? ??? ????? ????? ?????. ??? ???? ?????? ????, ??? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ??? ????? ?? ????. ????? ?? ???, ?????, ???, ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ?? ?????? ???. ? ???? ????? ???, ????? ????, ????? ??? ??? ??? ??.

??? ??? ????, ??? ????? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?? ???.

??

?? ?????? ????? ??. ??????? ???? ??.

??

?? ??? ? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ?? ???? ???? ??? ????. ?? ?? ??, ?? ??, ?? ??, ?? ??, ?? ??, ?? ??, ??? ??, ?? ??? 8??? ???. ? ?? ???? ??, ?, ??, ?? ?? ???? ???? ???, ?? ?? ??? ???? ?? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??. ?? ??? ??? ???? ?? ???, ????? ?? ?? ??? ?? ?? ???. ?? ????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???, ??? ??? ???? ??? ???. ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ???, ??? ?? ?? ???? ? ??? ????? ????. ???? ?? ???? ???? ??????, ?? ?? ?? ??? 4?? 3 ??? ???? ??. ????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???, ???? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ???? ??. ?? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ? ?? ????. ??? ????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???. ??? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ??.

??? ?????

???

??? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ??? ? ????. ??? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ???, ??? ?? ?? ???? ??? ?????. ??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? ?????.

????? ?? ??? ??????, ? ??? ????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?? ???. ?? ?? ?? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???, ?? ?? ??? ?? NBA? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ??. ??? ?? ????? ?? ????? 1994?? ??????, ????? ?? ??? ?? ????. ? ?? ???? ???? ??, ??, ????, ?? ?? ??. ????? ?? ??, ??, ??? ???? ?? ?? ????, ???? ??? ??. ?? ???? ?? ??? ???, 2012??? 4? 7?? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???. ?? ????? ??????? ?? ??, ??? ???, ??? ?? ????.

??? 1932? ?? ???? ?? ??????, ?? ????????? ??? ?? 1952?????. ??? ????? 2008? ???? ??????, 51?? ???? ??? ???? ? ?? ??? ?? ???? ??? ???. ??? 2012? ??????? 95?? ???? ??? 231?? ??? ??? ?? ?? ??? ???, 2011??? ???? 2011? ?? ??????? ?????. ??? 2013? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ????? 2014? ?? ??? ???? ???. ???? ?? ??? 2022? ?? ???? ?????, ??? ???? ???? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??.

??

???? (???????)

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???? ???(???)

1982? ??? 〈???? ???〉?? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ??? ???? ? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???,^[97] ? 18? ?? ????? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???, ??, ??, ????, ???, ??? ? 5? ??? ??(制度性宗教)? ?? ??????(中国佛教协会), ??????(中国道教协会), ????????(中国伊斯兰教协会), ????????(中国天主教爱国会), ??????????(中国天主教教务委员会), ????????(中国天主教主教团), ??????????????(中国基督教三自爱国运动委员会), ???????(中国基督教协会) ? 8? ?? ?? ??? ???? ??.

?? ??? ?? ??? ??(自治, ??? ???), ??(自養, ??? ??), ??(自傳, ??? ????)? ???? ?? ?? ????? ???, ?? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ????.

??

???

?? ????? ??? ???? ??. 2006??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?? ????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? ??.^[98] ?? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ?? 3???.

????????(中国天主教爱国会, ?? ???) – ?????? ??? ??? ???? ????. 1942??? ????? ????? ??? ?? ?? ???? ?? ?? ??? 1951?? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ???? ????????? ??? ????? ????, ?? ????? ??? ??? ?? ?? ???????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?? ???? ?? ????????? ??? ? ?? ????? ??? ???? ???? ???^[99] ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??. ?? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ??.^[100] ??? ??? ??? ?? ?? ? ????? ?? ?? ??, ????? ??? ???? ? ???? ??.^[99]
??????????(中国天主教教务委员会)
????????(中国天主教主教团)

???

?? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ?? 2???. ??????? ???????? ???????(中国基督教兩会)? ????? ??. ?? ?? ?? ?? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??.

??????????????(中国基督教三自爱国运动委员会) - ?? ????? ??? ?? ?? ??, 1957? ??????????????? ?????. ???(聖公會)? ??? ????.^[101]
???????(中国基督教协会) – ?? ????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ?? ?? ?? ???(WCC)?? ???? ??.

?????? ??? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?????. ????? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???, ?????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ??? ?????, ????? ??? ?? ??.^[102] ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ??.

?? ???? ??(邪教)? ??? ???? ??? ?? ???? ??. ?? ??? ???? ???(????), ???? ??? ??(????) ?? ??. ?? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ???. ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ? ??? ???? ??.

?? ??

Dumbaugh, Kerry; Martin, Michael F (2009? 12? 1?). Understanding China’s Political System (PDF) (???). 2020? 7? 30?? ???. ?? ?? ? ?? ??: |date= (???)

? ???? ????????(? ???)?? GFDL ?? CC-SA ????? ??? ??? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ?? ???? ????.

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China Travel Information (??) ?????? ??
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??

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↑ Global Slavery Index (2016?). 《China : Global Slavery Index 2016》.
↑ “???????”.
↑ The Guardian (2019? 2? 5?). “Call for retraction of 400 scientific papers amid fears organs came from Chinese prisoners”.
↑ BBC News (2011? 11? 7?). “Dalai Lama: 'Cultural genocide' behind self-immolations”.
↑ BBC News (2013? 6? 27?). “China resettles two million Tibetans, says Human Rights Watch”.
↑ The Guardian (2019? 11? 24?). “'Allow no escapes': leak exposes reality of China's vast prison camp network”.
↑ The Guardian (2019? 12? 19?). “'If you enter a camp, you never come out': inside China's war on Islam”.
↑ ?????? (2018? 3? 1?). “China detains relatives of U.S. reporters in apparent punishment for Xinjiang coverage”.
↑ ??? ?? (2008? 4? 3?). “China jails rights activist outspoken on Tibet”.
↑ ?? ?? ??, ???, ????, ?????, ???? ?.
↑ ????, ?? 2018 05 05 01:18 ?? 2018 05 05 04:03 582? 11? (2018? 5? 5?). “??? ?? ?? ??? … ???? 18? ???? ??”. 2020? 4? 12?? ???.
↑ 《???? ???》/?? ????? ??/???
↑ ??, ? ??? ???? ?? ??? 2006? 11? 30? ??? ??
↑ ^? ^? ???-?? ‘??’ ??? ??? 2008? 2? 22? ??? ??
↑ ??? ??? ??? ???
↑ ???? ??? ???(丁光训)? ??? ??? ???. ??? ??? ??? ???
↑ “??? ??”. 2015? 9? 23?? ?? ???? ??? ??. 2019? 4? 16?? ???.

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[45] ????. “[?????] ???, ??? ??? ???? ? ??”.

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[49] ???? (2020? 5? 25?). “???? ??? 中 "??? ??? ????"”.

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[51] ????????? ?? ??? ???, ???, ?? ?? ??.

[52] Dumbaugh & Martin 2020, 2? "The main political structure of the PRC is comprised of two vertically integrated, but interlocking institutions: Throughout China, Party and Government structures closely parallel one another, with Party committees and representatives present not only in government agencies, but also in most organizations and institutions, including universities and foreignowned enterprises. The nominal leader of the CCP is the General Secretary, but control of the Party is held collectively by its Standing Committee. China’s Government is managed by the State Council, which is headed by its Premier."

[53] Dumbaugh & Martin 2020, 2? "According to Article 57 of China’s constitution, “The National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China is the highest organ of state power.” Its highest officers are the President and Vice-President of the NPC, which are directly elected by the members of the NPC."

[54] Dumbaugh & Martin 2020, 3? "in reality, for all of the PRC’s 60 year history, the NPC has been subordinate to the State Council and the Party Standing Committee."

[55] ?????. “Oct. 25, 1971 People’s Republic of China In, Taiwan Out, at U.N.”.

[56] “The U.N. seats the People’s Republic of China and expels Taiwan”.

[taiwan-57] ??????? ??? ???? 23?? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???????? ?? ?? ??? ??? ?? ????? ????.

[58] ?? ???? ???? ????, 1970?? ??? ?? ??? ????.

[59] 1964? 1??~: ???,《???????》(1960?? 3?) (2004?, ??????) 19?.

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[61] Poland

[62] ?? ???, ???????????, ???, ?? ? ???? ???? ??????.

[63] 《??? ?? ?????》〈??? ??〉

[64] 《??? ?? ?????》〈??? ?? ????〉

[65] “[???? 6??] ⑥ ???? ??? ?? ??”. 2009? 3? 11?. 2010? 10? 26?? ?? ???? ??? ??. 2010? 3? 6?? ???.

[66] 《??? ?? ?????》〈??? ??〉

[67] 《??? ?? ?????》〈??? ??〉

[68] World Integrated Trade Solution Worldbank

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[???-72] 《??? ?? ?????》〈???? ??〉

[73] 《??? ?? ?????》〈???〉

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[75] 制度与人口：以中国历史和现实为基础的分析王跃生

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[78] 《??? ??》/??? ??? ??/??? ??/??????????

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[94] ??? ?? (2008? 4? 3?). “China jails rights activist outspoken on Tibet”.

[95] ?? ?? ??, ???, ????, ?????, ???? ?.

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[97] 《???? ???》/?? ????? ??/???

[98] ??, ? ??? ???? ?? ??? 2006? 11? 30? ??? ??

[autogenerated1-99] ? ^? ???-?? ‘??’ ??? ??? 2008? 2? 22? ??? ??

[100] ??? ??? ??? ???

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